The Role of Informal and Formal Seed Systems on Seed Security in Malawi
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Published
10-04-2026
Henry Geoffrey Hunga
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5324-9526
Abstract
Since the early 1990s, most African countries have implemented seed sector policy reforms aimed at strengthening formal seed systems to enhance agricultural productivity through improved access to high-yielding varieties. However, empirical evidence on the outcomes of these reforms remains mixed. This study examines the policy implications of seed system reforms in Malawi, focusing on the operationalisation of legal and institutional frameworks, seed availability (in terms of quantity and crop diversity), and changes in smallholder farmers’ seed-sourcing patterns. The analysis draws on secondary data from grey literature, large-scale Integrated Household Panel Survey (IHPS) datasets, and primary data collected through fieldwork, including focus group discussions (FGDs). Results indicate that the operationalisation of legal and institutional frameworks for the formal seed system has lagged behind private sector growth. Moreover, private sector expansion has not translated into increased seed quantities or greater crop diversity in the market, leading to increased reliance on informal seed systems by smallholders. The FGDs reveal that poverty, limited availability, and poor seed quality are key barriers to the adoption and use of certified seed. These results suggest that current reform approaches inadequately address smallholder seed access constraints. The study highlights the need for more inclusive seed policies that recognise and support the complementarities between formal and informal seed systems in order to improve smallholder access to high-quality seeds and strengthen agricultural resilience.
How to Cite
Hunga, H.G. (2026) “The Role of Informal and Formal Seed Systems on Seed Security in Malawi”, The International Journal of Sociology of Agriculture and Food, 32(1), pp. 251–272. doi:10.48416/ijsaf.v31i1.570.
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Keywords
formal seed system, informal seed system, seed source, availability, Malawi
References
ACB (2018) Seed Trade in Malawi: A Report on the Seed Trade Association of Malawi. Johannesburg: African Centre for Biodiversity.
AICC (2019) Consumer Preference of Rice and Rice Products. Lilongwe: African Institute for Corporate Citizenship.
Almekinders CJM, Beumer K, Hauser M, et al. (2019) Understanding the relations between farmers' seed demand and research methods: The challenge to do better. Outlook on Agriculture 48(1): 16-21.
Auriol E and Schilizzi S (2015) Quality signaling through certification in developing countries. Journal of Development Economics 116: 105-121.
Benson T, De Weerdt J, Duchoslav J and Masanjala W (2024) Fertilizer Subsidies in Malawi from Past to Present. Washington, DC: IFPRI.
Bergek A, Jacobsson S, Carlsson B, Lindmark S and Rickne A (2008) Analyzing the functional dynamics of technological innovation systems: A scheme of analysis. Research Policy 37(3): 407-429.
Buanec BL and Heffer P (2002) The Role of the Seed Trade in the Development of Agriculture: A Historical Perspective. Paris: International Seed Federation.
Bulte E, Di Falco S, Kassie M and Vollenweider X (2023) Low-quality seeds, labor supply and economic returns: Experimental evidence from Tanzania. The Review of Economics and Statistics: 1-33.
Chirwa EW and Dorward A (2013) Agricultural Input Subsidies: The Recent Malawi Experience. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cromwell E, Friis-Hansen E and Turner M (1992) The seed sector in developing countries: A framework for performance analysis. Working Paper 65. London: Overseas Development Institute.
Daum T, Scheiterle L, Yameogo V, et al. (2025) Moving beyond the productivity paradigm: Agricultural innovation systems and sustainable transformation in Africa. Agricultural Systems 229: 104445.
de Boef WS, Pierson B and Kim D (2014) Counterfeiting in African agriculture inputs: Challenges and solutions. Research Readout. Nairobi: Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.
Derwisch S, Morone P, Tröger K and Kopainsky B (2016) Investigating the drivers of innovation diffusion in a low income country context. The case of adoption of improved maize seed in Malawi. Futures 81: 161-175.
Deu M, Weltzien E, Calatayud C, et al. (2014) How an improved sorghum variety evolves in a traditional seed system in Mali: Effects of farmers' practices on the maintenance of phenotype and genetic composition. Field Crops Research 167: 131-142.
FANRPAN (2010) Proceedings report. In: The National Planning Workshop on the Harmonised Seed Security Project, Lilongwe, Malawi.
FAO (2019) Review of the Status and Trends of Seed Policies and Seed Laws. Rome: FAO.
Flaherty K and Kamangira D (2014) Agricultural Research and Development Factsheet: Malawi. Washington, DC: IFPRI.
GRAIN (2005) Africa's Seed Laws: A Threat to Small-Scale Farmers? Barcelona: GRAIN.
Hekkert MP, Suurs RAA, Negro SO, Kuhlmann S and Smits REHM (2007) Functions of innovation systems: A new approach for analysing technological change. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 74(4): 413-432.
Hockett M and Richardson RB (2016) Examining the drivers of agricultural experimentation among smallholder farmers in Malawi. Experimental Agriculture 54(1): 45-65.
Hoogendoorn JC, Audet-Bélanger G, Böber C, et al. (2018) Maize seed systems in different agro-ecosystems; what works and what does not work for smallholder farmers. Food Security 10(4): 1089-1103.
Hsu C-W and Chen H-H (2003) The Taiwan innovation system. In: Shavinina LV (ed) The International Handbook on Innovation. Oxford: Elsevier Sciences.
Hunga HG, Chiwaula L, Mulwafu W and Katundu M (2023a) The seed sector development in low-income countries: Lessons from the Malawi seed sector policy process. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 7: 891116.
Hunga HG, Chiwaula L and Katundu M (2023b) Organizational readiness for policy implementation: An assessment of the harmonized seed regulations in Malawi. Environmental Development 45: 100828.
ICRISAT (2017) Seed Systems Models and Lessons Learned. Patancheru: ICRISAT.
Jacobsson S and Bergek A (2011) Innovation system analyses and sustainability transitions: Contributions and suggestions for research. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions 1(1): 41-57.
Jahnke HE, Thacher G, Kiel P and Rojat D (1988) Livestock production in tropical Africa, with special reference to the tsetse-affected zone. In: Livestock Production on Tsetse-Affected Areas of Africa, Nairobi, Kenya.
Jayne TS, Zingore S, Niang AI, Palm C, Shah S and Sanchez P (2023) Building twenty-first century agricultural research and extension capacity in Africa. European Review of Agricultural Economics 50(5): 1824-1846.
Kieft A, Harmsen R and Hekkert MP (2017) Interactions between systemic problems in innovation systems: The case of energy-efficient houses in the Netherlands. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions 24: 32-44.
Kugbei S (2003) Potential impact of privatization on seed supply for small farmers in developing countries. Journal of New Seeds 5(4): 75-86.
Kuhlmann K and Dey B (2021) Using regulatory flexibility to address market informality in seed systems: A global study. Agronomy 11(2): 377.
Langyintuo AS, Mwangi W, Diallo AO, MacRobert J, Dixon J and Bänziger M (2010) Challenges of the maize seed industry in eastern and southern Africa: A compelling case for private-public intervention to promote growth. Food Policy 35(4): 323-331.
Louwaars NP and Manicad G (2022) Seed systems resilience—An overview. Seeds 1(4): 340-356.
Mabaya E, Kachule R and Mugoya M (2017) *Malawi Brief 2017 - The African Seed Index*. Available at: https://tasai.org (accessed [date]).
Maereka EK (2020) An estimation of grain legume seed system efficiency in developing countries. Master's Thesis, Iowa State University, Ames.
Malawi Government (1993) National Seed Policy. Lilongwe: Malawi Government.
Malawi Government (2013) National Export Strategy. Lilongwe: Ministry of Industry and Trade.
Malawi Government (2018) National Seed Policy. Lilongwe: Malawi Government.
Malawi Government (2024) Malawi National Seed Strategy and Investment Plan. Lilongwe: Ministry of Agriculture.
Marechera G, Muinga G and Irungu P (2016) Assessment of seed maize systems and potential demand for climate-smart hybrid maize seed in Africa. Journal of Agricultural Science 8(8): 171.
Mastenbroek A (2025) Scaling seed demand through behavioral insights: Applying the COM-B model and behavioral change wheel to the maize seed sector in Uganda. Agricultural Systems 229: 104432.
Mazzucato M, Kattel R and Ryan-Collins J (2019) Challenge-driven innovation policy: Towards a new policy toolkit. Journal of Industry, Competition and Trade 20(2): 421-437.
McGuire S and Sperling L (2016) Seed systems smallholder farmers use. Food Security 8(1): 179-195.
Mgomezulu WR, Chitete MMN, Maonga BB and Phiri MAR (2025) Machine learning approaches for grain seed quality assessment: a comparative study of maize seed samples in Malawi. Discover Applied Sciences 7(6).
Mloza-Banda HR, Kaudzu G and Benesi I (2010) Evaluation of the Malawi seed sector for the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) harmonized seed regulations and policies. Lilongwe: COMESA.
Munyi P and De Jonge B (2015) Seed systems support in Kenya: Consideration for an integrated seed sector development approach. Journal of Sustainable Development 8(2): 161.
Ng'ambi F and Maliro FA (2003) Seed security in Malawi with emphasis on food crops. Report to Africa Biodiversity Network. Lilongwe: Malawi Economic Justice Network.
Nguyen LTT, Berg Mvd, Douma JB and Stomph TJ (2025) The relationship between accessibility of retail seeds and diet diversity: a multi-level structural equation model applied to ethnic minority farmers in northern Vietnam. Food Security.
NSO (2020) The Fifth Integrated Household Survey (IHS5) 2020 Report. Zomba: National Statistical Office.
Oliveira OP and Faria CAP (2017) Research traditions and the state of the discipline in Brazil. Novos Estudos - CEBRAP 36(01): 13-34.
Phiri MAR, Chirwa R and Haugen JM (2004) A review of seed security strategies in Malawi. In: Sperling L, Remington T, Haugen JM and Nagoda S (eds) Addressing Seed Security in Disaster Response: Linking Relief with Development. Cali: International Center for Tropical Agriculture.
Remington T, Walsh S, Charles E, Maroko J and Omanga P (2002) Getting off the seeds-and-tools treadmill with CRS seed vouchers and fairs. Disasters 26(4): 316-328.
Rutsaert P, Donovan J, Murphy M and Hoffmann V (2024) Farmer decision making for hybrid maize seed purchases: Effects of brand loyalty, price discounts and product information. Agricultural Systems 218: 104002.
Simtowe F, Asfaw S and Abate T (2016) Determinants of agricultural technology adoption under partial population awareness: the case of pigeonpea in Malawi. Agricultural and Food Economics 4(1): 7.
Smith K (2010) Innovation as a systemic phenomenon: Rethinking the role of policy. Enterprise and Innovation Management Studies 1(1): 73-102.
Sperling L, Cooper HD and Remington T (2008) Moving towards more effective seed aid. The Journal of Development Studies 44(4): 586-612.
Sperling L, Gallagher P, McGuire S and March J (2020a) Tailoring legume seed markets for smallholder farmers in Africa. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 19(1): 71-90.
Sperling L, Gallagher P, McGuire S, March J and Templer N (2020b) Informal seed traders: The backbone of seed business and African smallholder seed supply. Sustainability 12(17): 7074.
Sperling L and McGuire S (2010) Understanding and strengthening informal seed markets. Experimental Agriculture 46(2): 119-136.
Sperling L and McGuire S (2012) Fatal gaps in seed security strategy. Food Security 4(4): 569-579.
Tripp R (2000) Strategies for seed system development in Sub-Saharan Africa: A study of Kenya, Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Working Paper Series No. 2. Bulawayo: ICRISAT.
Tripp R and Rohrbach DD (2001) Policies for African seed enterprise development. Food Policy 26: 147-161.
USAID (2014) Assessment of Small and Medium Enterprises in the Agriculture Sector and Improved Access to Finance in Malawi. Blantyre: USAID.
USAID (2016) Southern Africa region seed sector assessment. In: Feed the Future Enabling Environment for Food Security Project. Washington, DC: USAID.
USAID, Syngenta and NML (2020) Manual on Regional Seed Regulations in the Southern African Development Community (SADC). Washington, DC: USAID.
Vermunt DA, Wojtynia N, Hekkert MP, et al. (2022) Five mechanisms blocking the transition towards 'nature-inclusive' agriculture: A systemic analysis of Dutch dairy farming. Agricultural Systems 195: 103280.
Wambura RM, Doamekpor PK, Mwaseba DL, et al. (2015) Promotion of agricultural innovation systems approach: Policy implications for maize extension and advisory services in Tanzania. Tanzania Journal of Agricultural Sciences 14(2): 112-118.
Westengen OT, Dalle SP and Mulesa TH (2023) Navigating toward resilient and inclusive seed systems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 120(14): e2218777120.
Westengen OT, Haug R, Guthiga P and Macharia E (2019) Governing seeds in East Africa in the face of climate change: Assessing political and social outcomes. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 3: 53.
World Bank (2006) Enhancing Agricultural Innovations: How to Go Beyond the Strengthening of Research Systems. Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank (2018) *Methodology for Poverty Measurement in Malawi (2016/17)*. Zomba: National Statistical Office.
AICC (2019) Consumer Preference of Rice and Rice Products. Lilongwe: African Institute for Corporate Citizenship.
Almekinders CJM, Beumer K, Hauser M, et al. (2019) Understanding the relations between farmers' seed demand and research methods: The challenge to do better. Outlook on Agriculture 48(1): 16-21.
Auriol E and Schilizzi S (2015) Quality signaling through certification in developing countries. Journal of Development Economics 116: 105-121.
Benson T, De Weerdt J, Duchoslav J and Masanjala W (2024) Fertilizer Subsidies in Malawi from Past to Present. Washington, DC: IFPRI.
Bergek A, Jacobsson S, Carlsson B, Lindmark S and Rickne A (2008) Analyzing the functional dynamics of technological innovation systems: A scheme of analysis. Research Policy 37(3): 407-429.
Buanec BL and Heffer P (2002) The Role of the Seed Trade in the Development of Agriculture: A Historical Perspective. Paris: International Seed Federation.
Bulte E, Di Falco S, Kassie M and Vollenweider X (2023) Low-quality seeds, labor supply and economic returns: Experimental evidence from Tanzania. The Review of Economics and Statistics: 1-33.
Chirwa EW and Dorward A (2013) Agricultural Input Subsidies: The Recent Malawi Experience. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cromwell E, Friis-Hansen E and Turner M (1992) The seed sector in developing countries: A framework for performance analysis. Working Paper 65. London: Overseas Development Institute.
Daum T, Scheiterle L, Yameogo V, et al. (2025) Moving beyond the productivity paradigm: Agricultural innovation systems and sustainable transformation in Africa. Agricultural Systems 229: 104445.
de Boef WS, Pierson B and Kim D (2014) Counterfeiting in African agriculture inputs: Challenges and solutions. Research Readout. Nairobi: Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.
Derwisch S, Morone P, Tröger K and Kopainsky B (2016) Investigating the drivers of innovation diffusion in a low income country context. The case of adoption of improved maize seed in Malawi. Futures 81: 161-175.
Deu M, Weltzien E, Calatayud C, et al. (2014) How an improved sorghum variety evolves in a traditional seed system in Mali: Effects of farmers' practices on the maintenance of phenotype and genetic composition. Field Crops Research 167: 131-142.
FANRPAN (2010) Proceedings report. In: The National Planning Workshop on the Harmonised Seed Security Project, Lilongwe, Malawi.
FAO (2019) Review of the Status and Trends of Seed Policies and Seed Laws. Rome: FAO.
Flaherty K and Kamangira D (2014) Agricultural Research and Development Factsheet: Malawi. Washington, DC: IFPRI.
GRAIN (2005) Africa's Seed Laws: A Threat to Small-Scale Farmers? Barcelona: GRAIN.
Hekkert MP, Suurs RAA, Negro SO, Kuhlmann S and Smits REHM (2007) Functions of innovation systems: A new approach for analysing technological change. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 74(4): 413-432.
Hockett M and Richardson RB (2016) Examining the drivers of agricultural experimentation among smallholder farmers in Malawi. Experimental Agriculture 54(1): 45-65.
Hoogendoorn JC, Audet-Bélanger G, Böber C, et al. (2018) Maize seed systems in different agro-ecosystems; what works and what does not work for smallholder farmers. Food Security 10(4): 1089-1103.
Hsu C-W and Chen H-H (2003) The Taiwan innovation system. In: Shavinina LV (ed) The International Handbook on Innovation. Oxford: Elsevier Sciences.
Hunga HG, Chiwaula L, Mulwafu W and Katundu M (2023a) The seed sector development in low-income countries: Lessons from the Malawi seed sector policy process. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 7: 891116.
Hunga HG, Chiwaula L and Katundu M (2023b) Organizational readiness for policy implementation: An assessment of the harmonized seed regulations in Malawi. Environmental Development 45: 100828.
ICRISAT (2017) Seed Systems Models and Lessons Learned. Patancheru: ICRISAT.
Jacobsson S and Bergek A (2011) Innovation system analyses and sustainability transitions: Contributions and suggestions for research. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions 1(1): 41-57.
Jahnke HE, Thacher G, Kiel P and Rojat D (1988) Livestock production in tropical Africa, with special reference to the tsetse-affected zone. In: Livestock Production on Tsetse-Affected Areas of Africa, Nairobi, Kenya.
Jayne TS, Zingore S, Niang AI, Palm C, Shah S and Sanchez P (2023) Building twenty-first century agricultural research and extension capacity in Africa. European Review of Agricultural Economics 50(5): 1824-1846.
Kieft A, Harmsen R and Hekkert MP (2017) Interactions between systemic problems in innovation systems: The case of energy-efficient houses in the Netherlands. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions 24: 32-44.
Kugbei S (2003) Potential impact of privatization on seed supply for small farmers in developing countries. Journal of New Seeds 5(4): 75-86.
Kuhlmann K and Dey B (2021) Using regulatory flexibility to address market informality in seed systems: A global study. Agronomy 11(2): 377.
Langyintuo AS, Mwangi W, Diallo AO, MacRobert J, Dixon J and Bänziger M (2010) Challenges of the maize seed industry in eastern and southern Africa: A compelling case for private-public intervention to promote growth. Food Policy 35(4): 323-331.
Louwaars NP and Manicad G (2022) Seed systems resilience—An overview. Seeds 1(4): 340-356.
Mabaya E, Kachule R and Mugoya M (2017) *Malawi Brief 2017 - The African Seed Index*. Available at: https://tasai.org (accessed [date]).
Maereka EK (2020) An estimation of grain legume seed system efficiency in developing countries. Master's Thesis, Iowa State University, Ames.
Malawi Government (1993) National Seed Policy. Lilongwe: Malawi Government.
Malawi Government (2013) National Export Strategy. Lilongwe: Ministry of Industry and Trade.
Malawi Government (2018) National Seed Policy. Lilongwe: Malawi Government.
Malawi Government (2024) Malawi National Seed Strategy and Investment Plan. Lilongwe: Ministry of Agriculture.
Marechera G, Muinga G and Irungu P (2016) Assessment of seed maize systems and potential demand for climate-smart hybrid maize seed in Africa. Journal of Agricultural Science 8(8): 171.
Mastenbroek A (2025) Scaling seed demand through behavioral insights: Applying the COM-B model and behavioral change wheel to the maize seed sector in Uganda. Agricultural Systems 229: 104432.
Mazzucato M, Kattel R and Ryan-Collins J (2019) Challenge-driven innovation policy: Towards a new policy toolkit. Journal of Industry, Competition and Trade 20(2): 421-437.
McGuire S and Sperling L (2016) Seed systems smallholder farmers use. Food Security 8(1): 179-195.
Mgomezulu WR, Chitete MMN, Maonga BB and Phiri MAR (2025) Machine learning approaches for grain seed quality assessment: a comparative study of maize seed samples in Malawi. Discover Applied Sciences 7(6).
Mloza-Banda HR, Kaudzu G and Benesi I (2010) Evaluation of the Malawi seed sector for the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) harmonized seed regulations and policies. Lilongwe: COMESA.
Munyi P and De Jonge B (2015) Seed systems support in Kenya: Consideration for an integrated seed sector development approach. Journal of Sustainable Development 8(2): 161.
Ng'ambi F and Maliro FA (2003) Seed security in Malawi with emphasis on food crops. Report to Africa Biodiversity Network. Lilongwe: Malawi Economic Justice Network.
Nguyen LTT, Berg Mvd, Douma JB and Stomph TJ (2025) The relationship between accessibility of retail seeds and diet diversity: a multi-level structural equation model applied to ethnic minority farmers in northern Vietnam. Food Security.
NSO (2020) The Fifth Integrated Household Survey (IHS5) 2020 Report. Zomba: National Statistical Office.
Oliveira OP and Faria CAP (2017) Research traditions and the state of the discipline in Brazil. Novos Estudos - CEBRAP 36(01): 13-34.
Phiri MAR, Chirwa R and Haugen JM (2004) A review of seed security strategies in Malawi. In: Sperling L, Remington T, Haugen JM and Nagoda S (eds) Addressing Seed Security in Disaster Response: Linking Relief with Development. Cali: International Center for Tropical Agriculture.
Remington T, Walsh S, Charles E, Maroko J and Omanga P (2002) Getting off the seeds-and-tools treadmill with CRS seed vouchers and fairs. Disasters 26(4): 316-328.
Rutsaert P, Donovan J, Murphy M and Hoffmann V (2024) Farmer decision making for hybrid maize seed purchases: Effects of brand loyalty, price discounts and product information. Agricultural Systems 218: 104002.
Simtowe F, Asfaw S and Abate T (2016) Determinants of agricultural technology adoption under partial population awareness: the case of pigeonpea in Malawi. Agricultural and Food Economics 4(1): 7.
Smith K (2010) Innovation as a systemic phenomenon: Rethinking the role of policy. Enterprise and Innovation Management Studies 1(1): 73-102.
Sperling L, Cooper HD and Remington T (2008) Moving towards more effective seed aid. The Journal of Development Studies 44(4): 586-612.
Sperling L, Gallagher P, McGuire S and March J (2020a) Tailoring legume seed markets for smallholder farmers in Africa. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 19(1): 71-90.
Sperling L, Gallagher P, McGuire S, March J and Templer N (2020b) Informal seed traders: The backbone of seed business and African smallholder seed supply. Sustainability 12(17): 7074.
Sperling L and McGuire S (2010) Understanding and strengthening informal seed markets. Experimental Agriculture 46(2): 119-136.
Sperling L and McGuire S (2012) Fatal gaps in seed security strategy. Food Security 4(4): 569-579.
Tripp R (2000) Strategies for seed system development in Sub-Saharan Africa: A study of Kenya, Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Working Paper Series No. 2. Bulawayo: ICRISAT.
Tripp R and Rohrbach DD (2001) Policies for African seed enterprise development. Food Policy 26: 147-161.
USAID (2014) Assessment of Small and Medium Enterprises in the Agriculture Sector and Improved Access to Finance in Malawi. Blantyre: USAID.
USAID (2016) Southern Africa region seed sector assessment. In: Feed the Future Enabling Environment for Food Security Project. Washington, DC: USAID.
USAID, Syngenta and NML (2020) Manual on Regional Seed Regulations in the Southern African Development Community (SADC). Washington, DC: USAID.
Vermunt DA, Wojtynia N, Hekkert MP, et al. (2022) Five mechanisms blocking the transition towards 'nature-inclusive' agriculture: A systemic analysis of Dutch dairy farming. Agricultural Systems 195: 103280.
Wambura RM, Doamekpor PK, Mwaseba DL, et al. (2015) Promotion of agricultural innovation systems approach: Policy implications for maize extension and advisory services in Tanzania. Tanzania Journal of Agricultural Sciences 14(2): 112-118.
Westengen OT, Dalle SP and Mulesa TH (2023) Navigating toward resilient and inclusive seed systems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 120(14): e2218777120.
Westengen OT, Haug R, Guthiga P and Macharia E (2019) Governing seeds in East Africa in the face of climate change: Assessing political and social outcomes. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 3: 53.
World Bank (2006) Enhancing Agricultural Innovations: How to Go Beyond the Strengthening of Research Systems. Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank (2018) *Methodology for Poverty Measurement in Malawi (2016/17)*. Zomba: National Statistical Office.
Section
Emerging Scholars of Agriculture and Food
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How to Cite
Hunga, H.G. (2026) “The Role of Informal and Formal Seed Systems on Seed Security in Malawi”, The International Journal of Sociology of Agriculture and Food, 32(1), pp. 251–272. doi:10.48416/ijsaf.v31i1.570.
Funding data
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UK Research and Innovation
Grant numbers NE/P021093/1