The Rise of Agricultural Animal Welfare Standards as Understood Through a Neo-Institutional Lens
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Published
Dec 4, 2007
Elizabeth Ransom
Abstract
In recent years agricultural animal welfare standards have increasingly been placed on the agenda of international, regional, and national governance bodies, as well as private agrifood organizations. Standards, long the domain of economists, are now recognized as one of the most significant emerging practices for governing food, and as such, a growing number of scholars have focused on the role that powerful actors have in setting standards and the distributional benefits of standards implementation. However, much of the existing literature relies on consumer-demand arguments for explaining the rise of animal welfare standards. This article uses sociological neo-institutionalism, specifically institutional isomorphism, to reveal that agrifood organizations are either forced by large food retailers, or by the demands of interacting with other complex organizations, to adopt animal welfare standards in an effort to maintain access to markets, political power and legitimacy. Further, due to the continuing uncertainty surrounding the definition of agricultural animal welfare and the standards and techniques used to ensure compliance, the evidence supports the theory that organizations will model themselves after similar organizations in their field that they perceive to be more legitimate or successful.
How to Cite
Ransom, E. . (2007) “The Rise of Agricultural Animal Welfare Standards as Understood Through a Neo-Institutional Lens ”, The International Journal of Sociology of Agriculture and Food. Paris, France, 15(3), pp. 26–44. doi: 10.48416/ijsaf.v15i3.277.
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References
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Bingen, Jim and Lawrence Busch, editors. 2006. Agricultural Standards: The Shape of the Global Food and Fiber System. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Buller, Henry and Carol Morris. 2003. “Farm Animal Welfare: a New Repertoire of Nature-Society Relations or Modernism Re-embedded?” Sociologia Ruralis 43(3):216-237.
Burt, J. 2006."Conflicts Around Slaughter in Modernity." Pp. 120-144 in Killing Animals, edited by Animal Studies Group. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Busch, Lawrence, Deepa Thiagarajan, Maki Hatanaka, Carmen Bain, Luis G. Flores and Mark Frahm. 2005. "The Relationship of Third-Party Certification (TPC) to Sanitary/Phytosanitary (SPS) Measures and the International Agri-Food Trade: Final Report." 9.
Busch, Lawrence and Carmen Bain. 2004. “New! Improved? The transformation of the global agri-food system.” Rural Sociology 69, 3: 321-346.
CIWF. 2006. From Darwin to Dawkins: the science and implications of animal sentience: Highlights from the CIWF Trust International Conference on Animal Sentience. Compassion in World Farming Trust Conference Proceedings, London, 17-18 March 2005.
Clemens, Elisabeth S. and James M. Cook. 1999. Politics and Institutionalism: Explaining Durability and Change. Annual Review of Sociology 25, 1: 441-466.
Colomy, Paul. 1998. "Neofunctionalism and Neoinstitutionalism: Human Agency and Interest in Institutional Change." Sociological Forum 13:265-300.
Conrad, Browyn Kara. 2006. Neo-Institutionalism, Social Movements, and the Cultural Reproduction of a Mentalite: Promise Keepers Reconstruct the Madonna/Whore Complex. The Sociological Quarterly 47, 2: 305-331
CRLE. 2007. “Animals and Society Courses.” Center for Respect of Life and Environment. Date Accessed: 05/04/07. http://www.crle.org/prog_courses_by_state.asp
Deaton, B. J. 2004. "A Theoretical Framework for Examining the Role of Third-Party Certifiers." Food Control 15:615-9.
Delgado, C., M. Rosegrant, H. Steinfeld, Simeon Ehui, C. Courbois. 1999. Livestock to 2020: The Next Food Revolution. Food, Agriculture, and the Environment Discussion Paper 28, IFPRI. Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute. Retrieved May 21, 2002. (http://www.cgiar.org/ilri/news/news-pdf/lvst2020.pdf).
DiMaggio, Paul J. and Walter W. Powell. 1991a. “Introduction.” Pp. 1–38 in The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis, edited by Walter W. Powell and Paul J.
DiMaggio. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
DiMaggio, Paul J. and Walter W. Powell. 1991b. “The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields.” Pp. 63-82 in The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis, edited by Walter W. Powell and Paul J. DiMaggio. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Dobbin, Frank. 1994. Forging Industrial Policy: The United States, Britain, and France in the Railway Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dolan, Catherine and J. Humphrey. 2000. “Governance and Trade in Fresh Vegetables: The Impact of UK Supermarkets on the African Horticulture Industry,” 37 (2000) (2), Pp. 147–176. Journal of Development Studies 37:147-76.
Dunn Elizabeth C, 2003, "Trojan pig: paradoxes of food safety regulation" Environment and Planning A 35(8): 1493 – 1511.
European Biomedical Research Association. 1997. "IGC Agrees Protocol on Animal Welfare." Retrieved 2/4, 2007 (http://www.ebra.org/ebrabulletin-igc-agrees-protocol-on-animalwelfare_79.htm).
European Commission. 2002. "Farm Animal Welfare: Current Research and Future Directions.":1-32.
Evans, P. 1995. Embedded Autonomy: States and Industrial Transformation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Farm Animal Welfare Council. 2007. "Farm Animal Welfare Council - 5 Freedoms." Retrieved 2/4/07, 2007 (http://www.fawc.org.uk/freedoms.htm).
Favre, David and Hall IV, Charles F. 2004. "Comparative National Animal Welfare Laws." Michigan State University College of Law - Animal Legal & Historical Center:1/18/2006.
Fligstein, Neil. 1996. “Markets as Politics: A Political-Cultural Approach to Market Institutions.” American Sociological Review, 61 (4): 656-673.
Francione, G.L. 1996. Rain Without Thunder: The ideology of the animal rights movements. Temple University Press.
Freidberg, Susanne. 2004. French Beans and Food Scares: Culture and Commerce in an Anxious Age. New York: Oxford University Press.
Friedland, Roger and Robert R. Alford. 1991. "Bringing Society Back In: Symbols, Practices, and Institutional Contradictions." Pp. 232-263 in The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis, edited by Walter W. Powell and Paul J. DiMaggio. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Giovannucci, D. and T. Reardon. 2000. "Understanding Grades and Standards and how to Apply them." A Guide to Developing Agricultural Markets and Agro-Enterprises. edited by D. Giovannucci. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
Graffham, A., Karehu, E. and Macgregor, J. (2006). Impact of EurepGAP on small scale vegetable growers in Kenya. Fresh Insights no. 6, www.agrifoodstandards.org.
Grandin, Temple. 2001. "Corporations can be Agents of Great Improvements in Animal Welfare and Food Safety and the Need for Minimum Decent Standards." Presentation at the Meeting of National Council of Chair Restaurants, Retrieved 5/10/2007, 2007 (http://lamar.colostate.edu/~grandin/welfare/corporation.agents.html).
Grandin, Temple, and Catherine Johnson. 2005. Animals in Translation : Using the Mysteries of Autism to Decode Animal Behavior. New York: Scribner.
Granovetter, Mark. 1985. "Economic action and social structure: the problem of embeddedness." American Journal of Sociology 91 (3):481-510.
Hannin, Herve, Jean-Marie Codron and Sophie Thoyer. 2006. "The International Office of Vine and Wine (OIV) and the World Trade Organization (WTO): Standardization Issues in the Wine Sector." Pp. 73-92 in Agricultural Standards: The Shape of the Global Food and Fiber System. edited by Jim Bingen and Lawrence Busch. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Haraway, Donna J. 1989. Primate Visions: Gender, Race, and Nature in the World of Modern Science.. New York: Routledge.
------.1991. Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Reinvention of Nature. . New York: Routledge.
Harding, Sandra. 1991. Whose Science? Whose Knowledge?: Thinking from Women's Lives. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.
Hatanaka, Maki, Carmen Bain and Lawrence Busch. June 2005. "Third-Party Certification in the Global Agrifood System." Food Policy 30:354-69.
Higgins, Vaughan, and Geoffrey Lawrence. 2005. Agricultural Governance : Globalization and the New Politics of Regulation. New York: Routledge.
Hirsch, Veronica. 2003. "Overview of the Legal Protections of the Domestic Chicken in the United States and Europe." Michigan State University College of Law - Animal Legal & Historical Center. East Lansing, Michigan. Date accessed: 1/18/06 (http://www.animallaw.info/articles/dduschick.htm)
Johnson, Kay. 2004. “International animal care guidelines coming.” August 2, 2004. Agricultural Animal Alliance. Date accessed: May 8, 2007. http://www.animalagalliance.org/main/home.cfm?Section=Poultry_Times_080204&Category=MediaCorner
Keeling, Linda. n.d. “Developing a Monitoring System.” Welfare Quality: Science and Society Improving Animal Welfare. Date accessed: November 19, 2007. http://www.welfarequality.net/everyone/29956
Lubinski, Joseph. 2004. Introduction to Animal Rights. Michigan State University - Detroit College of Law: Animal Legal and Historical Center.
Maloni, Michael J and Michael E.Brown . 2006. "Corporate Social Responsibility in the Supply Chain: An Application in the Food Industry." Journal of Business Ethics 68 (1):35.
McMichael, Philip. 2004. Development and Social Change: A Global Perspective. Thousand Oaks, Calif. ; Pine Forge Press, c2004.
Meyer, John W. and Brian Rowan. 1991. “Institutionalized Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony.” Pp. 41-62 in The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis, edited by Walter W. Powell and Paul J. DiMaggio. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Miele, Mara, Jonathan Murdoch and Emma Roe. 2005. "Animals and Ambivalence: Governing Farm Animal Welfare in the European Food Sector." Pp. 169-85 in Agricultural Governance: Globalization and the New Politics of Regulation, edited by Vaughan Higgins and Geoffrey Lawrence. New York, NY: Routledge.
Millstone, Erik and Tim Lang. 2003. The Penguin Atlas of Food: Who Eats What, Where, and Why. New York, NY: Penguin Books.
Mitchell, Lorraine. 2001. "Impact of Consumer Demand for Animal Welfare on Global Trade." Pp. 80-9 in Changing Structure of Global Food Consumption and Trade / WRS-01-1, edited by Anita Regmi. Washington, DC: Economic Research Service/USDA.
Moynagh, James. 2000. “ EU Regulation and Consumer Demand for Animal Welfare.” AgBioForum, 3 (2&3): 107-114.
North, Douglass C. 1990. Institutions, institutional change, and economic performance. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Powell, Walter W. and Paul J. DiMaggio, Eds. 1991. The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Ransom, Elizabeth. 2006. "Defining a Good Steak: Global Constructions of what is Considered the Best Red Meat." Pp. 159-175 in Agricultural Standards: The Shape of the Global Food and Fiber System (the International Library of Environmental, Agricultural and Food Ethics), edited by Jim Bingen and Lawrence Busch. Springer.
Reardon, T., J. M. Codron, L. Busch, J. Bingen and C. Harris. 2001. "Global Change in Agrifood Grades and Standards: Agribusiness Strategic Responses in Developing Countries." International Food and Agribusiness Management Review 2:421-35.
Reardon, Tom and Elizabeth Farina. 2002. "The Rise of Private Food Quality and Safety Standards: Illustrations from Brazil." International Food and Agricultural Management Review 4:413-21.
Renard, Marie-Christine. 2005. "Quality Certification, Regulation and Power in Fair Trade." Journal of Rural Studies 21:419-31.
Ritvo, Harry. 1987. The Animal Estate: The English and Other Creatures in the Victorian Age. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Scholte, Jan A. 2000. Globalization: A Critical Introduction. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Siebert, Charles. 2006. "The Animal Self: Scientists are Conducting Personality Tests on Animals as Varied as Chimps, Hyenas and Giant Octopuses." The New York Times Magazine 6:50-79.
Scott, W. R. 2001. Institutions and Organizations. Second edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Spriggs, J. and G. Isaac. 2001. Food Safety and International Competitiveness: the Case of Beef. Oxford, CABI.
Swidler, Ann. 1986. "Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies." American Sociological Review 51:273-86.
Taplin, Ian M. and R. S. Breckenridge. 2006. "How Large Firms Create Industry Norms and Legitimacy: The Growth of the North Carolina Wine Industry." 103-06:1-16.
Tovey, Hilary. 2003. "Theorising Nature and Society in Sociology: The Invisibility of Animals." Sociologia Ruralis 43:196-215.
USDA/FAS. 2001. “European Union Market Development Reports.” in Horticulture Products Certification 2001. GAIN Report #E21134.
Unnevehr, Laurian and Donna Roberts. 2004. "Food Safety and Quality: Regulations, Trade and the WTO." Pp. 512-30 in Agricultural Policy Reform and the WTO: Where are we Heading? edited by Giovanni Anania, Mary E. Bohman, Colin A. Carter and Alex F. McCalla. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc.
Victor, David G. 2000. “Risk Management and the World Trading System: Regulating International Trade Distortions Caused by National Sanitary and Phytosanitary Policies.” Pp. 118-169 in Incorporating Science, Economics, and Sociology in
Developing Sanitary and Phytosanitary Standards in International Trade. National Research Council. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
World Trade Organization (WTO). 1995. "the WTO Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement)." Geneva, Switzerland: World Trade Organization, 2007 (http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/sps_e/spsagr_e.htm).
White, Harrison C. 1981. "Where do markets come from?" American Journal of Sociology 87(3):517-47.
Williamson, Oliver. 1985. The Economic Institutions of Capitalism. New York: The Free Press.
Wolfson, David J. 1996. "Beyond the Law: Agribusiness and the Systemic Abuse of Animals Raised for Food Or Food Production." Lewis and Clark Animal Law Review:1/18/2006.
Wright, Wynne. 2005. "Fields of Cultural Contradictions: Lessons from the Tobacco Patch." Agriculture and Human Values 22:465-77.
Wright, Wynne and Stephen Muzzatti. 2007. "Not in My Port: The 'Death Ship' of Sheep and Crimes of Agri-Food Globalization." Agriculture and Human Values, Vol. 24(2). Forthcoming.
Zwerdling, Daniel. 2002. “Fast Food and Animal Rights: McDonald’s New Farm.” American RadioWorks, June 2002. Retrieved February 25, 2007. (http://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/features/mcdonalds/)
Bingen, Jim and Lawrence Busch, editors. 2006. Agricultural Standards: The Shape of the Global Food and Fiber System. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Buller, Henry and Carol Morris. 2003. “Farm Animal Welfare: a New Repertoire of Nature-Society Relations or Modernism Re-embedded?” Sociologia Ruralis 43(3):216-237.
Burt, J. 2006."Conflicts Around Slaughter in Modernity." Pp. 120-144 in Killing Animals, edited by Animal Studies Group. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Busch, Lawrence, Deepa Thiagarajan, Maki Hatanaka, Carmen Bain, Luis G. Flores and Mark Frahm. 2005. "The Relationship of Third-Party Certification (TPC) to Sanitary/Phytosanitary (SPS) Measures and the International Agri-Food Trade: Final Report." 9.
Busch, Lawrence and Carmen Bain. 2004. “New! Improved? The transformation of the global agri-food system.” Rural Sociology 69, 3: 321-346.
CIWF. 2006. From Darwin to Dawkins: the science and implications of animal sentience: Highlights from the CIWF Trust International Conference on Animal Sentience. Compassion in World Farming Trust Conference Proceedings, London, 17-18 March 2005.
Clemens, Elisabeth S. and James M. Cook. 1999. Politics and Institutionalism: Explaining Durability and Change. Annual Review of Sociology 25, 1: 441-466.
Colomy, Paul. 1998. "Neofunctionalism and Neoinstitutionalism: Human Agency and Interest in Institutional Change." Sociological Forum 13:265-300.
Conrad, Browyn Kara. 2006. Neo-Institutionalism, Social Movements, and the Cultural Reproduction of a Mentalite: Promise Keepers Reconstruct the Madonna/Whore Complex. The Sociological Quarterly 47, 2: 305-331
CRLE. 2007. “Animals and Society Courses.” Center for Respect of Life and Environment. Date Accessed: 05/04/07. http://www.crle.org/prog_courses_by_state.asp
Deaton, B. J. 2004. "A Theoretical Framework for Examining the Role of Third-Party Certifiers." Food Control 15:615-9.
Delgado, C., M. Rosegrant, H. Steinfeld, Simeon Ehui, C. Courbois. 1999. Livestock to 2020: The Next Food Revolution. Food, Agriculture, and the Environment Discussion Paper 28, IFPRI. Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute. Retrieved May 21, 2002. (http://www.cgiar.org/ilri/news/news-pdf/lvst2020.pdf).
DiMaggio, Paul J. and Walter W. Powell. 1991a. “Introduction.” Pp. 1–38 in The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis, edited by Walter W. Powell and Paul J.
DiMaggio. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
DiMaggio, Paul J. and Walter W. Powell. 1991b. “The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields.” Pp. 63-82 in The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis, edited by Walter W. Powell and Paul J. DiMaggio. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Dobbin, Frank. 1994. Forging Industrial Policy: The United States, Britain, and France in the Railway Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dolan, Catherine and J. Humphrey. 2000. “Governance and Trade in Fresh Vegetables: The Impact of UK Supermarkets on the African Horticulture Industry,” 37 (2000) (2), Pp. 147–176. Journal of Development Studies 37:147-76.
Dunn Elizabeth C, 2003, "Trojan pig: paradoxes of food safety regulation" Environment and Planning A 35(8): 1493 – 1511.
European Biomedical Research Association. 1997. "IGC Agrees Protocol on Animal Welfare." Retrieved 2/4, 2007 (http://www.ebra.org/ebrabulletin-igc-agrees-protocol-on-animalwelfare_79.htm).
European Commission. 2002. "Farm Animal Welfare: Current Research and Future Directions.":1-32.
Evans, P. 1995. Embedded Autonomy: States and Industrial Transformation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Farm Animal Welfare Council. 2007. "Farm Animal Welfare Council - 5 Freedoms." Retrieved 2/4/07, 2007 (http://www.fawc.org.uk/freedoms.htm).
Favre, David and Hall IV, Charles F. 2004. "Comparative National Animal Welfare Laws." Michigan State University College of Law - Animal Legal & Historical Center:1/18/2006.
Fligstein, Neil. 1996. “Markets as Politics: A Political-Cultural Approach to Market Institutions.” American Sociological Review, 61 (4): 656-673.
Francione, G.L. 1996. Rain Without Thunder: The ideology of the animal rights movements. Temple University Press.
Freidberg, Susanne. 2004. French Beans and Food Scares: Culture and Commerce in an Anxious Age. New York: Oxford University Press.
Friedland, Roger and Robert R. Alford. 1991. "Bringing Society Back In: Symbols, Practices, and Institutional Contradictions." Pp. 232-263 in The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis, edited by Walter W. Powell and Paul J. DiMaggio. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Giovannucci, D. and T. Reardon. 2000. "Understanding Grades and Standards and how to Apply them." A Guide to Developing Agricultural Markets and Agro-Enterprises. edited by D. Giovannucci. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
Graffham, A., Karehu, E. and Macgregor, J. (2006). Impact of EurepGAP on small scale vegetable growers in Kenya. Fresh Insights no. 6, www.agrifoodstandards.org.
Grandin, Temple. 2001. "Corporations can be Agents of Great Improvements in Animal Welfare and Food Safety and the Need for Minimum Decent Standards." Presentation at the Meeting of National Council of Chair Restaurants, Retrieved 5/10/2007, 2007 (http://lamar.colostate.edu/~grandin/welfare/corporation.agents.html).
Grandin, Temple, and Catherine Johnson. 2005. Animals in Translation : Using the Mysteries of Autism to Decode Animal Behavior. New York: Scribner.
Granovetter, Mark. 1985. "Economic action and social structure: the problem of embeddedness." American Journal of Sociology 91 (3):481-510.
Hannin, Herve, Jean-Marie Codron and Sophie Thoyer. 2006. "The International Office of Vine and Wine (OIV) and the World Trade Organization (WTO): Standardization Issues in the Wine Sector." Pp. 73-92 in Agricultural Standards: The Shape of the Global Food and Fiber System. edited by Jim Bingen and Lawrence Busch. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Haraway, Donna J. 1989. Primate Visions: Gender, Race, and Nature in the World of Modern Science.. New York: Routledge.
------.1991. Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Reinvention of Nature. . New York: Routledge.
Harding, Sandra. 1991. Whose Science? Whose Knowledge?: Thinking from Women's Lives. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.
Hatanaka, Maki, Carmen Bain and Lawrence Busch. June 2005. "Third-Party Certification in the Global Agrifood System." Food Policy 30:354-69.
Higgins, Vaughan, and Geoffrey Lawrence. 2005. Agricultural Governance : Globalization and the New Politics of Regulation. New York: Routledge.
Hirsch, Veronica. 2003. "Overview of the Legal Protections of the Domestic Chicken in the United States and Europe." Michigan State University College of Law - Animal Legal & Historical Center. East Lansing, Michigan. Date accessed: 1/18/06 (http://www.animallaw.info/articles/dduschick.htm)
Johnson, Kay. 2004. “International animal care guidelines coming.” August 2, 2004. Agricultural Animal Alliance. Date accessed: May 8, 2007. http://www.animalagalliance.org/main/home.cfm?Section=Poultry_Times_080204&Category=MediaCorner
Keeling, Linda. n.d. “Developing a Monitoring System.” Welfare Quality: Science and Society Improving Animal Welfare. Date accessed: November 19, 2007. http://www.welfarequality.net/everyone/29956
Lubinski, Joseph. 2004. Introduction to Animal Rights. Michigan State University - Detroit College of Law: Animal Legal and Historical Center.
Maloni, Michael J and Michael E.Brown . 2006. "Corporate Social Responsibility in the Supply Chain: An Application in the Food Industry." Journal of Business Ethics 68 (1):35.
McMichael, Philip. 2004. Development and Social Change: A Global Perspective. Thousand Oaks, Calif. ; Pine Forge Press, c2004.
Meyer, John W. and Brian Rowan. 1991. “Institutionalized Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony.” Pp. 41-62 in The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis, edited by Walter W. Powell and Paul J. DiMaggio. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Miele, Mara, Jonathan Murdoch and Emma Roe. 2005. "Animals and Ambivalence: Governing Farm Animal Welfare in the European Food Sector." Pp. 169-85 in Agricultural Governance: Globalization and the New Politics of Regulation, edited by Vaughan Higgins and Geoffrey Lawrence. New York, NY: Routledge.
Millstone, Erik and Tim Lang. 2003. The Penguin Atlas of Food: Who Eats What, Where, and Why. New York, NY: Penguin Books.
Mitchell, Lorraine. 2001. "Impact of Consumer Demand for Animal Welfare on Global Trade." Pp. 80-9 in Changing Structure of Global Food Consumption and Trade / WRS-01-1, edited by Anita Regmi. Washington, DC: Economic Research Service/USDA.
Moynagh, James. 2000. “ EU Regulation and Consumer Demand for Animal Welfare.” AgBioForum, 3 (2&3): 107-114.
North, Douglass C. 1990. Institutions, institutional change, and economic performance. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Powell, Walter W. and Paul J. DiMaggio, Eds. 1991. The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Ransom, Elizabeth. 2006. "Defining a Good Steak: Global Constructions of what is Considered the Best Red Meat." Pp. 159-175 in Agricultural Standards: The Shape of the Global Food and Fiber System (the International Library of Environmental, Agricultural and Food Ethics), edited by Jim Bingen and Lawrence Busch. Springer.
Reardon, T., J. M. Codron, L. Busch, J. Bingen and C. Harris. 2001. "Global Change in Agrifood Grades and Standards: Agribusiness Strategic Responses in Developing Countries." International Food and Agribusiness Management Review 2:421-35.
Reardon, Tom and Elizabeth Farina. 2002. "The Rise of Private Food Quality and Safety Standards: Illustrations from Brazil." International Food and Agricultural Management Review 4:413-21.
Renard, Marie-Christine. 2005. "Quality Certification, Regulation and Power in Fair Trade." Journal of Rural Studies 21:419-31.
Ritvo, Harry. 1987. The Animal Estate: The English and Other Creatures in the Victorian Age. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Scholte, Jan A. 2000. Globalization: A Critical Introduction. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Siebert, Charles. 2006. "The Animal Self: Scientists are Conducting Personality Tests on Animals as Varied as Chimps, Hyenas and Giant Octopuses." The New York Times Magazine 6:50-79.
Scott, W. R. 2001. Institutions and Organizations. Second edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Spriggs, J. and G. Isaac. 2001. Food Safety and International Competitiveness: the Case of Beef. Oxford, CABI.
Swidler, Ann. 1986. "Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies." American Sociological Review 51:273-86.
Taplin, Ian M. and R. S. Breckenridge. 2006. "How Large Firms Create Industry Norms and Legitimacy: The Growth of the North Carolina Wine Industry." 103-06:1-16.
Tovey, Hilary. 2003. "Theorising Nature and Society in Sociology: The Invisibility of Animals." Sociologia Ruralis 43:196-215.
USDA/FAS. 2001. “European Union Market Development Reports.” in Horticulture Products Certification 2001. GAIN Report #E21134.
Unnevehr, Laurian and Donna Roberts. 2004. "Food Safety and Quality: Regulations, Trade and the WTO." Pp. 512-30 in Agricultural Policy Reform and the WTO: Where are we Heading? edited by Giovanni Anania, Mary E. Bohman, Colin A. Carter and Alex F. McCalla. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc.
Victor, David G. 2000. “Risk Management and the World Trading System: Regulating International Trade Distortions Caused by National Sanitary and Phytosanitary Policies.” Pp. 118-169 in Incorporating Science, Economics, and Sociology in
Developing Sanitary and Phytosanitary Standards in International Trade. National Research Council. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
World Trade Organization (WTO). 1995. "the WTO Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement)." Geneva, Switzerland: World Trade Organization, 2007 (http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/sps_e/spsagr_e.htm).
White, Harrison C. 1981. "Where do markets come from?" American Journal of Sociology 87(3):517-47.
Williamson, Oliver. 1985. The Economic Institutions of Capitalism. New York: The Free Press.
Wolfson, David J. 1996. "Beyond the Law: Agribusiness and the Systemic Abuse of Animals Raised for Food Or Food Production." Lewis and Clark Animal Law Review:1/18/2006.
Wright, Wynne. 2005. "Fields of Cultural Contradictions: Lessons from the Tobacco Patch." Agriculture and Human Values 22:465-77.
Wright, Wynne and Stephen Muzzatti. 2007. "Not in My Port: The 'Death Ship' of Sheep and Crimes of Agri-Food Globalization." Agriculture and Human Values, Vol. 24(2). Forthcoming.
Zwerdling, Daniel. 2002. “Fast Food and Animal Rights: McDonald’s New Farm.” American RadioWorks, June 2002. Retrieved February 25, 2007. (http://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/features/mcdonalds/)
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