The Food and Human Security Index: Rethinking Food Security and ‘Growth’
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Published
Jun 4, 2012
Michael Carolan
Abstract
The goals of this article are multiple: to challenge conventional understandings of food security; to show that economic growth per se cannot be relied upon to adequately feed the world; to convince critics of economic growth to pay closer attention to issues related to food in their assessments of ‘development’; and to up-end established beliefs around the so-called Global North–South divide; and confront the belief that the latter must follow in the food-prints of the former. The author introduces the Food and Human Security Index (FHSI) with these ends in mind. A FHSI score is calculated for 126 countries by looking at indicators of objective and subjective well-being, nutrition, ecological sustainability, food dependency, and food-system market concentration. The ranking of scores has some counter-intuitive placements, which ought to be reflected upon as new lines are drawn around food security in the twenty-first century.
How to Cite
Carolan, M. . (2012) “The Food and Human Security Index: Rethinking Food Security and ‘Growth’ ”, The International Journal of Sociology of Agriculture and Food. Paris, France, 19(2), pp. 176–200. doi: 10.48416/ijsaf.v19i2.223.
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References
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online
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Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service Report 94.
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University of Minnesota Press.
Cutler D., Glaeser, E. and Shapiro, J. (2003) Why have Americans become more obese? Journal of Economic
Perspectives, 17(3), pp. 93–118.
Daly, H. (1999) Ecological Economics and the Ecology of Economics. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Dietz, T., Rosa, E. and York, R. (2012) Environmentally efficient well-being: is there a Kuznets curve?
Environmental Geography, 32, pp. 21–28.
Dixon, H. and Broom, D. (2007) The Seven Deadly Sins of Obesity. Sydney: UNSW Press.
Drewnowski, A. and Specter, S. (2004) Poverty and obesity: the role of energy density and energy costs,
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 79(1), pp. 6–16.
Drewnowski, A. and Darmon, N. (2005) The economics of obesity: dietary energy density and energy cost,
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 82(1), pp. 265S–273S.
D’Silva , J. and Webster, J. (eds) (2010) The Meat Crisis: Developing More Sustainable Production and Consumption.
London: Earthscan.
Dutta, I. and Gundersen, C. (2007) Measures of food insecurity at the household level, in: B. Guha-Khasnobis
and S. Acharya (eds) Food Security. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 42–61.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) (1943) United Nations Conference on Food
and Agriculture: Hot Springs, Virginia, May 18–June 3: Final Acts and Section Reports. Washington, DC:
United States Government Printing Office.
Farina, E. (2001) Challenges for Brazil’s food industry in the context of globalization and Mercosur consolidation,
International Food and Agribusiness Management Review, 2, pp. 315–330.
Finkelstein E. and Zuckerman, L. (2008) The Fattening of America: How the Economy Makes Us Fat, If It Matters,
and What to Do about It. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Flora, C. (2010) Food security in the context of energy and resource depletion: Sustainable agriculture in
developing countries, Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 25, pp. 118–128.
Friedmann, H. (1990) The origins of third world food dependence, in: H. Bernstein, B. Crow, M. Mackintosh
and C. Martin (eds) The Food Question: Profits versus People, New York: Monthly Review Press,
pp. 13–31.
Friedmann, H. (1992) Distance and durability: shaky foundations of the world food economy, Third World
Quarterly, 13(2), pp. 371–383.
Furey, S., Strugnell, C. and McIlveen, H. (2001) An investigation of the potential existence of ‘food deserts’
in rural and urban areas of Northern Ireland, Agriculture and Human Values, 18, pp. 447–457.
Friends of the Earth (2010) Healthy Planet Eating: How Lower Meat Diets Can Save Lives and the Planet. London:
Friends of the Earth. Published online
Guthman, J. (2011) Weighing In: Obesity, Food Justice and the Limits of Capitalism. Los Angeles, CA: University
of California Press.
Hawkes, C. (2005) The role of foreign direct investment in the nutrition transition, Public Health Nutrition,
8(4), pp. 357–365.
Hawkes, C. (2006) Uneven dietary development: linking the policies and processes of globalization with
the nutrition transition, obesity and diet-related chronic diseases, Globalization and Health, 2(4), pp.
1–18.
Hawkes, C. (2008) Dietary implications of supermarket development: a global perspective, Development
Policy Review, 26(6), pp. 657–692.
Hendrickson, M., Heffernan, W., Howard, P. and Heffernan, J. (2001) Consolidation in food retailing and
dairy, British Food Journal, 103(10), pp. 715–728.
Hendrickson, D., Smith, C. and Eikenberry, N. (2006) Fruit and vegetable access in four low-income food
desert communities in Minnesota, Agriculture and Human Values, 23, pp. 371–383.
Hoekstra, A., Chapaga in, A., Aldaya, M. and Mekonnen, M. (2011) The Water Footprint Assessment Manual:
Setting the Global Standard. London: Earthscan.
Jackson, T. (2009) Prosperity Without Growth. London: Earthscan.
Jarosz, L. (2009) Energy, climate change, meat, and markets: mapping the coordinates of the current food
crisis, Geography Compass, 3(6), pp. 2065–2083.
Kasser, T. (2002) The High Price of Materialism. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Knight, K. and Rosa, E. (2011) The environmental efficiency of well-being: a cross-national analysis, Social
Science Research, 40, pp. 931–949.
Kulkarni, S., Levin-Rector, A., Ezzati, M. and Murray, C. (2011) Falling behind: life expectancy in US
counties from 2000 to 2007 in an international context, Population Health Metrics, 9(1), pp. 1–12.
Marsh, J. and Brester, G. (2004) Wholesale-retail marketing margins behavior in the beef and pork industries,
Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 29(1), pp. 45–64.
McMichael, P. (2006) Reframing development: global peasant movements and the new agrarian question,
Canadian Journal of Development Studies, 27(4), pp. 471–483.
Medez, A. and Popkin, B. (2004) Globalization, urbanization, and nutritional change in the developing
world, Journal of Agricultural and Development Economics, 1(2), pp. 220–241.
Mekonnen, M. and Hoekstra, A. (2011) National Water Footprint Accounts: The Green, Blue and Grey Water
Footprint of Production and Consumption, Value of Water Research Report Series No.50. Delft: UNESCOIHE.
Published online
Milkias, P. (2010) Developing the Global South: A United Nations Prescription for the Third Millennium. New
York: Algora.
Mishan, E. (1967) The Costs of Economic Growth. Middlesex, MA: Penguin Books.
Monteverde, M., Noronha, K., Palloni, A. and Novak , B. (2010) Obesity and excess mortality among the
elderly in the United States and Mexico, Demography, 47(1), pp. 79–96.
Mooney, P. and Hunt, S. (2009) Food security: the elaboration of contested claims to a consensus frame,
Rural Sociology, 74(4), pp. 469–497.
Morton, L., Bitto, E., Oakland, M. and Sand, M. (2005) Solving the problems of Iowa food deserts: food
insecurity and civic structure, Rural Sociology, 70, pp. 94–112.
Pan, X., Zhang., C. and Shi, Z. (2011) Soft drink and sweet food consumption and suicidal behaviours
among Chinese adolescents, Acta Paediatrica, 100(11), pp. e215–e222.
Pimentel, D. (2005) Environmental and economic costs of the application of pesticides primarily in the
United States, Environment, Development and Sustainability, 7, pp. 229–252.
Preidt, R. (2011) Cost of obesity approaching $300 billion per year, Bloomberg Business Weekly, 11 January,
published online,
accessed 21 May 2012.
Rayner, G., Hawkes, C., Lang, T. and Bello, W. (2007) Trade liberalization and the diet transition: a public
health response, Health Promotion International, 21(S1), pp. 64–74.
Richards, T. and Pofahl, G. (2010) Pricing power by supermarket retailers: a ghost in the machine?, Choices,
25(2), published online, accessed
21 May 2012.
Rose, D. and Richards, R. (2004) Food store access and household fruit and vegetable use among participants
in the US Food Stamp Program, Public Health and Nutrition, 7, pp. 1081–1088.
Sage, C. (2011) Environment and Food. New York: Routledge.
Schibner, Z., Ford, S., Dhingra, C., Strine, T. and Mokdad, A. (2009) Depression and anxiety among US
adults: associations with body mass index, International Journal of Obesity, 33, pp. 257–266.
Schor, J. (2005) Born to Buy. New York: Schibner.
Schwartz, B. (2004) The Paradox of Choice: Why More is Less. New York: Harper Collins.
Shaw, H. (2006) Food deserts: towards the development of a classification, Geografiska Annaler: Series B,
Human Geography, 88(2), pp 231–247.
Smith, K., Lawrence, G. and Richards, C. (2010) Supermarkets’ governance of the agri-food supply chain:
is the ‘corporate-environmental’ food regime evident in Australia?, International Journal of Sociology of
Agriculture and Food, 17(2), pp. 140–161.
Smith, M., Pointing, J. and Maxwell, S. (1992) Household Food Security, Concepts and Definitions: An Annotated
Bibliography, Development Bibliography No. 8. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies, University
of Sussex.
Stringer, C. and Le Heron, R. (eds) (2008) Agri-food Commodity Chains and Globalizing Networks. Burlington,
VT: Ashgate.
Stuart, T. (2009) Waste: Uncovering the Global Food Scandal. New York: W.W. Norton.
USDA (United States Depa rtment of Agriculture) (2005) Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005. Washington,
DC: USDA. Published online
USDA (United States Depa rtment of Agriculture) (2009) Access to Affordable and Nutritious Food – Measuring
and Understanding Food Deserts and their Consequences: Report to Congress. Washington, DC: USDA.
Shapouri, S., Rosen, S., Peters, M., Tandon, S., Gale, F., Mancino, L. and Bai, J. (2011) International Food
Security Assessment 2011–21. Washington, DC: USDA
Vía Campesina (1996) The Right to Produce and Access to Land. Position of La Vía Campesina on Food Sovereignty
presented at the World Food Summit, Rome, 13–17 November.
Wallinga, D., Schoonover, H. and Muller, M. (2009) Considering the contribution of US agricultural policies
to the obesity epidemic: overview and opportunities, Journal of Hunger and Environmental Nutrition,
4(1), pp. 3–19.
Weber, C. and Matthews, H. (2008) Food miles and the relative climate impacts of food choices in the
United States, Environmental Science and Technology, 42(10), pp. 3508–3513.
Welsh, R. and Graham, R. (1999) A new paradigm for world agriculture, Field Crops Research, 60, pp. 1–10.
Wenga, T., Haoa, J.,Qiana, Q., Caoa, H., Fua, J., Suna, Y., Huanga, L. and Taoa, F. (2012) Is there any relationship
between dietary patterns and depression and anxiety in Chinese adolescents?, Public Health
Nutrition, 15(4), pp. 673–682.
Wittman, H., Desmarais, A. and Wiebe, N. (2010) Food Sovereignty: Reconnecting Food, Nature and Community.
Oakland, CA: Food First Books.
Wilkinson, R. and Pickett, K. (2009) The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Are Almost Always Better.
New York: Penguin Books.
Wilkinson, R., Pickett, K. and De Vogli, R. (2010) Equality, sustainability, and quality of life, British Medical
Journal, 341, pp. 1138–1140.
Williams, G., Metha, P. and Willis, K. (2009) Geographies of Developing Areas: The Global South in a Changing
World. New York: Routledge.
Zimmerman, F. (2011) Using marketing muscle to sell fat: the rise of obesity in the modern economy, Annual
Review of Public Health, 32, pp. 285–306.
Press.
Arroyo, P., Loria, A. and Mendez, O. (2004) Changes in the household calorie supply during the 1994
economic crisis in Mexico and its implications for the obesity epidemic, Nutrition Reviews, 62, pp. S163–
S168.
Ball, K., Crawford, D. and Kenardy, J. (2004) Longitudinal relationships among overweight, life satisfaction,
and aspirations in young women, Obesity, 12, pp. 1019–1030.
Bello, W. (2008) How to manufacture a food crisis, Development, 51(4), pp. 450–455.
Bennett, J. (2001) Safety nets and assets: food aid in Cambodia, Journal of Humanitarian Assistance, April
14, published online
Blanchard, T. and Matthews, T. (2008) Retail concentration, food deserts, and food disadvantaged communities
in rural America, in: C. Hinrichs and T. Lyson (eds) Remaking the North American Food System:
Strategies for Sustainability. Lincoln, NE, University of Nebraska, pp. 201–215.
Bomford, M. (2011) Beyond Food Miles. Santa Rosa, CA: Post Carbon Institute, 9 March. Published online
Burch, D. and Lawrence, G. (eds) (2007) Supermarkets and Agri-food Supply Chains. Northampton, MA:
Edward Elgar Publishing.
Butland, B., Jebb, S., Kopelman, P, McPherson, K., Thomas, S., Mardell, J. and Parry, V. (2007) Foresight:
Tackling Obesity: Future Choices – Project Report, 2nd edn. London: Government Office for Science. Published
online
Buttel, F. (2005) Ever since Hightower: the politics of agricultural research activism in the molecular age,
Agriculture and Human Values, 22, pp. 275–283.
Canning, P., Charles, A., Huang, S., Polenske, K. and Waters, A. (2010) Energy Use in the US Food System,
Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service Report 94.
Published online
January 2012.
Carolan, M. (2011) The Real Cost of Cheap Food. New York: Routledge/Earthscan.
Carolan, M. (2012) The Sociology of Food and Agriculture. New York: Routledge/Earthscan.
Cochrane, W. (1993) The Development of American Agriculture: A Historical Analysis. Minneapolis, MN:
University of Minnesota Press.
Cutler D., Glaeser, E. and Shapiro, J. (2003) Why have Americans become more obese? Journal of Economic
Perspectives, 17(3), pp. 93–118.
Daly, H. (1999) Ecological Economics and the Ecology of Economics. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Dietz, T., Rosa, E. and York, R. (2012) Environmentally efficient well-being: is there a Kuznets curve?
Environmental Geography, 32, pp. 21–28.
Dixon, H. and Broom, D. (2007) The Seven Deadly Sins of Obesity. Sydney: UNSW Press.
Drewnowski, A. and Specter, S. (2004) Poverty and obesity: the role of energy density and energy costs,
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 79(1), pp. 6–16.
Drewnowski, A. and Darmon, N. (2005) The economics of obesity: dietary energy density and energy cost,
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 82(1), pp. 265S–273S.
D’Silva , J. and Webster, J. (eds) (2010) The Meat Crisis: Developing More Sustainable Production and Consumption.
London: Earthscan.
Dutta, I. and Gundersen, C. (2007) Measures of food insecurity at the household level, in: B. Guha-Khasnobis
and S. Acharya (eds) Food Security. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 42–61.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) (1943) United Nations Conference on Food
and Agriculture: Hot Springs, Virginia, May 18–June 3: Final Acts and Section Reports. Washington, DC:
United States Government Printing Office.
Farina, E. (2001) Challenges for Brazil’s food industry in the context of globalization and Mercosur consolidation,
International Food and Agribusiness Management Review, 2, pp. 315–330.
Finkelstein E. and Zuckerman, L. (2008) The Fattening of America: How the Economy Makes Us Fat, If It Matters,
and What to Do about It. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Flora, C. (2010) Food security in the context of energy and resource depletion: Sustainable agriculture in
developing countries, Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 25, pp. 118–128.
Friedmann, H. (1990) The origins of third world food dependence, in: H. Bernstein, B. Crow, M. Mackintosh
and C. Martin (eds) The Food Question: Profits versus People, New York: Monthly Review Press,
pp. 13–31.
Friedmann, H. (1992) Distance and durability: shaky foundations of the world food economy, Third World
Quarterly, 13(2), pp. 371–383.
Furey, S., Strugnell, C. and McIlveen, H. (2001) An investigation of the potential existence of ‘food deserts’
in rural and urban areas of Northern Ireland, Agriculture and Human Values, 18, pp. 447–457.
Friends of the Earth (2010) Healthy Planet Eating: How Lower Meat Diets Can Save Lives and the Planet. London:
Friends of the Earth. Published online
Guthman, J. (2011) Weighing In: Obesity, Food Justice and the Limits of Capitalism. Los Angeles, CA: University
of California Press.
Hawkes, C. (2005) The role of foreign direct investment in the nutrition transition, Public Health Nutrition,
8(4), pp. 357–365.
Hawkes, C. (2006) Uneven dietary development: linking the policies and processes of globalization with
the nutrition transition, obesity and diet-related chronic diseases, Globalization and Health, 2(4), pp.
1–18.
Hawkes, C. (2008) Dietary implications of supermarket development: a global perspective, Development
Policy Review, 26(6), pp. 657–692.
Hendrickson, M., Heffernan, W., Howard, P. and Heffernan, J. (2001) Consolidation in food retailing and
dairy, British Food Journal, 103(10), pp. 715–728.
Hendrickson, D., Smith, C. and Eikenberry, N. (2006) Fruit and vegetable access in four low-income food
desert communities in Minnesota, Agriculture and Human Values, 23, pp. 371–383.
Hoekstra, A., Chapaga in, A., Aldaya, M. and Mekonnen, M. (2011) The Water Footprint Assessment Manual:
Setting the Global Standard. London: Earthscan.
Jackson, T. (2009) Prosperity Without Growth. London: Earthscan.
Jarosz, L. (2009) Energy, climate change, meat, and markets: mapping the coordinates of the current food
crisis, Geography Compass, 3(6), pp. 2065–2083.
Kasser, T. (2002) The High Price of Materialism. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Knight, K. and Rosa, E. (2011) The environmental efficiency of well-being: a cross-national analysis, Social
Science Research, 40, pp. 931–949.
Kulkarni, S., Levin-Rector, A., Ezzati, M. and Murray, C. (2011) Falling behind: life expectancy in US
counties from 2000 to 2007 in an international context, Population Health Metrics, 9(1), pp. 1–12.
Marsh, J. and Brester, G. (2004) Wholesale-retail marketing margins behavior in the beef and pork industries,
Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 29(1), pp. 45–64.
McMichael, P. (2006) Reframing development: global peasant movements and the new agrarian question,
Canadian Journal of Development Studies, 27(4), pp. 471–483.
Medez, A. and Popkin, B. (2004) Globalization, urbanization, and nutritional change in the developing
world, Journal of Agricultural and Development Economics, 1(2), pp. 220–241.
Mekonnen, M. and Hoekstra, A. (2011) National Water Footprint Accounts: The Green, Blue and Grey Water
Footprint of Production and Consumption, Value of Water Research Report Series No.50. Delft: UNESCOIHE.
Published online
Milkias, P. (2010) Developing the Global South: A United Nations Prescription for the Third Millennium. New
York: Algora.
Mishan, E. (1967) The Costs of Economic Growth. Middlesex, MA: Penguin Books.
Monteverde, M., Noronha, K., Palloni, A. and Novak , B. (2010) Obesity and excess mortality among the
elderly in the United States and Mexico, Demography, 47(1), pp. 79–96.
Mooney, P. and Hunt, S. (2009) Food security: the elaboration of contested claims to a consensus frame,
Rural Sociology, 74(4), pp. 469–497.
Morton, L., Bitto, E., Oakland, M. and Sand, M. (2005) Solving the problems of Iowa food deserts: food
insecurity and civic structure, Rural Sociology, 70, pp. 94–112.
Pan, X., Zhang., C. and Shi, Z. (2011) Soft drink and sweet food consumption and suicidal behaviours
among Chinese adolescents, Acta Paediatrica, 100(11), pp. e215–e222.
Pimentel, D. (2005) Environmental and economic costs of the application of pesticides primarily in the
United States, Environment, Development and Sustainability, 7, pp. 229–252.
Preidt, R. (2011) Cost of obesity approaching $300 billion per year, Bloomberg Business Weekly, 11 January,
published online
accessed 21 May 2012.
Rayner, G., Hawkes, C., Lang, T. and Bello, W. (2007) Trade liberalization and the diet transition: a public
health response, Health Promotion International, 21(S1), pp. 64–74.
Richards, T. and Pofahl, G. (2010) Pricing power by supermarket retailers: a ghost in the machine?, Choices,
25(2), published online
21 May 2012.
Rose, D. and Richards, R. (2004) Food store access and household fruit and vegetable use among participants
in the US Food Stamp Program, Public Health and Nutrition, 7, pp. 1081–1088.
Sage, C. (2011) Environment and Food. New York: Routledge.
Schibner, Z., Ford, S., Dhingra, C., Strine, T. and Mokdad, A. (2009) Depression and anxiety among US
adults: associations with body mass index, International Journal of Obesity, 33, pp. 257–266.
Schor, J. (2005) Born to Buy. New York: Schibner.
Schwartz, B. (2004) The Paradox of Choice: Why More is Less. New York: Harper Collins.
Shaw, H. (2006) Food deserts: towards the development of a classification, Geografiska Annaler: Series B,
Human Geography, 88(2), pp 231–247.
Smith, K., Lawrence, G. and Richards, C. (2010) Supermarkets’ governance of the agri-food supply chain:
is the ‘corporate-environmental’ food regime evident in Australia?, International Journal of Sociology of
Agriculture and Food, 17(2), pp. 140–161.
Smith, M., Pointing, J. and Maxwell, S. (1992) Household Food Security, Concepts and Definitions: An Annotated
Bibliography, Development Bibliography No. 8. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies, University
of Sussex.
Stringer, C. and Le Heron, R. (eds) (2008) Agri-food Commodity Chains and Globalizing Networks. Burlington,
VT: Ashgate.
Stuart, T. (2009) Waste: Uncovering the Global Food Scandal. New York: W.W. Norton.
USDA (United States Depa rtment of Agriculture) (2005) Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005. Washington,
DC: USDA. Published online
USDA (United States Depa rtment of Agriculture) (2009) Access to Affordable and Nutritious Food – Measuring
and Understanding Food Deserts and their Consequences: Report to Congress. Washington, DC: USDA.
Shapouri, S., Rosen, S., Peters, M., Tandon, S., Gale, F., Mancino, L. and Bai, J. (2011) International Food
Security Assessment 2011–21. Washington, DC: USDA
Vía Campesina (1996) The Right to Produce and Access to Land. Position of La Vía Campesina on Food Sovereignty
presented at the World Food Summit, Rome, 13–17 November.
Wallinga, D., Schoonover, H. and Muller, M. (2009) Considering the contribution of US agricultural policies
to the obesity epidemic: overview and opportunities, Journal of Hunger and Environmental Nutrition,
4(1), pp. 3–19.
Weber, C. and Matthews, H. (2008) Food miles and the relative climate impacts of food choices in the
United States, Environmental Science and Technology, 42(10), pp. 3508–3513.
Welsh, R. and Graham, R. (1999) A new paradigm for world agriculture, Field Crops Research, 60, pp. 1–10.
Wenga, T., Haoa, J.,Qiana, Q., Caoa, H., Fua, J., Suna, Y., Huanga, L. and Taoa, F. (2012) Is there any relationship
between dietary patterns and depression and anxiety in Chinese adolescents?, Public Health
Nutrition, 15(4), pp. 673–682.
Wittman, H., Desmarais, A. and Wiebe, N. (2010) Food Sovereignty: Reconnecting Food, Nature and Community.
Oakland, CA: Food First Books.
Wilkinson, R. and Pickett, K. (2009) The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Are Almost Always Better.
New York: Penguin Books.
Wilkinson, R., Pickett, K. and De Vogli, R. (2010) Equality, sustainability, and quality of life, British Medical
Journal, 341, pp. 1138–1140.
Williams, G., Metha, P. and Willis, K. (2009) Geographies of Developing Areas: The Global South in a Changing
World. New York: Routledge.
Zimmerman, F. (2011) Using marketing muscle to sell fat: the rise of obesity in the modern economy, Annual
Review of Public Health, 32, pp. 285–306.
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